Psychic disorders resulting from bodily disorder and treatment
1.Disorder in the experience of the body
Origin
This disorder comes into being when people have too high expectations of themselves (and particularly of their body). They have excessive demands which they are not willing to give up. They have an obsession about their appearance. The disorder originates from feelings of inferiority and the fear to attract attention and make a fool of themselves.
Symptoms
Someone who suffers from this disorder is often too concerned about his looks and is annoyed by every small stain or lump on his body. To prevent that someone else discovers their 'physical defect' it may even happen that people do not dare to appear on the streets anymore. Often people set all their hopes on a medical surgery, but most of the time this does not have the desired result.
Treatment
Treatment cannot exist of medical surgeries. These never have the desired outcome, because if one 'defect' has disappeared people will find another one or they will focus on their scar from surgery.
However it is good if someone goes and talk to the patient. This may convince the patient that those 'physical defects' are not that bad at all. It is important to get treatment on time to prevent a depression.
2.Faking illness
Origin
This disease is a form of trying to attract attention. Usually these people fake an illness that brings them into a hospital which allows them to receive attention from family and doctors. This illness often originates from lack of attention.
Symptoms
Sometimes it is rather innocent, people only tell everyone that they suffer from some small cold or flu. However sometimes it is more serious, the patient causes infections or other injuries on purpose through which they get into the hospital
Treatment
Treatment is comparable with that of the 'Lack of attention syndrome'. One has to receive individual counselling with the help of focused attention and training of the behavior, because the patient often has the feeling that they do not get enough attention. But it is of utmost importance to realize the seriousness of the illness.
3. Alzheimer
Origin
Despite the fact that this disease does not appear among young people we considered it important enough to mention it in the Medguide.
The causes of Alzheimer are partly hereditary. It is estimated that about 40% of the Alzheimer disease has a hereditary origin. The effect of Alzheimer is in the brain, brain tissue is being broken down. The result of this is the deterioration of intellectual skills.
Symptoms
The disease manifests itself through concentration problems and forgetting things. Also personality changes appear, people become careless and get irritated quickly.
People who suffer from this disease often realize that something is wrong and because of this they get depressed.
Treatment
This disease gets more and more alarming and there is nothing you can do about it with medicine or any other kind of treatment. The velocity of the deterioration also depends on stress; the bigger the stress, the faster the deterioration.
4. Amnesia
Origin
Amnesia is a partly memory disorder. It can have different causes:
1. Meningitis
2. Concussion
3. Alcoholism
Symptoms
Amnesia patients suffer from a partly memory disorder. Things that happened a long time ago can still be remembered most of the time, but often the patient is no longer aware when and how they happened.
Amnesia patients lack the ability to learn and to remember new things. There is a total inability to remember things that just happened.
Treatment
Unfortunately there is no treatment available against amnesia. The effects of amnesia can be so strong that they unable the patient to live at home.
Mood disorders and treatment
1.Depression
Origin
A depression is a big mood change, in which people feel sad and completely powerless. Biological factors play an important role in the cause of a depression; some people have a larger tendency to suffer from the disorder than others. But also psychic factors play a role.
Symptoms
Depressed people are listless and often stay in bed or in an easy chair all day. They feel worthless and worry about everything.
Often there is nothing they find enjoyable and there is nothing one can do to cheer them up.
Treatment
The treatment depends on the age of the patient:
1. With young people it is necessary to change the environment.
2. With teenagers individual attention is more important. Also medication can be prescribed.
2.Manic episodes
Origin
A manic episode is a disorder of the mood. Its origin is similar to that of a depression.
Biological factors play an important role in the cause of a manic episode. Some people have a larger tendency to suffer from the disorder than others. But also psychic factors play a role
Symptoms
General characteristics of a manic episode are:
• The patient is abnormally busy or excited.
• During a busy period the patient has the feeling that he can do anything.
• The patient has a reduced need for sleep.
• The patient is extremely talkative.
• The patients thoughts are wild and chaotic.
• The patient gets easily distracted.
• The patient causes trouble in trying to do everything.
Treatment
It is important that people do not egg up the patient during the therapy. People should not enter into a discussion with the patient. It is important to set clear limits to what is allowed and what is not. The treatment resembles the treatment of a depression.
Fear disorders and treatment
1.Phobias
Origin
Phobias are extreme fears in specific situations lacking real danger or fears which are completely out of proportion. Most of the time the person with the phobia realizes that its fear is irrational and illogical, but he still keeps feeling the pain. Only avoiding the painful situation can bring relieve.
A phobia often originates from a negative experience with the subject concerning the phobia. There appear to be hereditary influences, but a phobia can also be taught.
Symptoms
A phobia for something exists if exposure to that something results in a panic attack. A lot of people are afraid of an injection from the doctor, but this is not called a phobia.
Kids most of the time do not get a panic attack but start crying really loud and clamp on to someone (usually their mom or dad).
Treatment
The most effective treatment is exposure to the fear, although this is very difficult. It has to be made clear that there is absolutely no reason for a phobia.
So if someone has a phobia for dogs, he or she has to learn how to get along with them through an intensive treatment.
2.Obsession
Origins
An obsession is an obsessional-compulsive disorder. The origin of obsessions is still unclear.
Symptoms
An obsession is characterized by involuntary repetitive acts or thoughts. However, not every thought that stays in ones mind is an obsession. For instance, everybody sometimes has the experience of a song that continuously pops up in ones mind. This of course is not an obsession.
An obsession often deals with a specific topic. A person is forced to think about something and subsequently cannot remove this thought from his mind anymore. Often these are specific topics which the person involved experiences as absurd or alarming.
Treatment
Treatment of an obsession is often difficult. The patient must undergo a carefully assembled behavioral therapy. Removal of the obsession has to be done in a safe environment.
3.Post-traumatic stress disorder
Origin
PTSD means post-traumatic stress disorder. This disease originates from a traumatic experience. This can be an experience in a concentration camp, a rape or a war.
Symptoms
People who suffer from PTSD often have fear-symptoms and nightmares. Sometimes people even deny the experiences they have been through, or they blame themselves.
Treatment
Treatment for PTSD is very hard. Often people do not want to talk about it as talking about it brings back the old feelings. However it is important that people discuss the matter, for example with fellow-sufferers.
Personality disorders and treatment
1.Avoiding personality
Origin
Both hereditary factors and environmental factors play a role at the origin of a personality disorder.
Symptoms
People with an avoiding personality do not dare to enter in a discussion with other people. They hardly dare to communicate with others and are afraid to be humiliated.
Treatment
Personality disorders, including the avoiding personality, are often difficult to treat. People suffering such a disorder are unaware that their personality is the cause of the disorder. In addition they have the feeling that they are unable to change their existing behavior. It is therefore important that the doctor in attendance starts by making the patient aware of the importance of his character and only then start the actual therapy. In addition to psychotherapy, use of medicine can help to overcome inferiority feelings.
2.Dependent personality
Origin
Both hereditary factors and environmental factors play a role at the origin of a personality disorder.
Symptoms
People with a dependent personality are emotionally dependent of other people. They have difficulty in taking decisions without having consulted other people. They always want to be in the company of others.
Treatment
Personality disorders, including the dependent personality, are often difficult to treat. People suffering such a disorder are unaware that their personality is the cause of the disorder. In addition they have the feeling that they are unable to change their existing behavior. It is therefore important that the doctor in attendance starts by making the patient aware of the importance of his character and only than start the actual therapy.
3.Antisocial personality
Origin
Both hereditary factors and environmental factors play a role at the origin of a personality disorder.
Symptoms
People with an antisocial personality behave asocial and do not take other people into account. Often they do not care about the law and they use others, who they humiliate and abuse, for their own pleasure. People who suffer from this disorder are often called psychopaths.
Antisocial personality is the most investigated personality disorder. This is because it is the most expensive one for society.
Treatment
In contrast to other personality disorders, psychotherapy has no effect on people with an antisocial personality as these people lie or try to lead the doctor up the garden path.
The patient has to be taken from the normal living environment so he can be put into a treatment center. There has to be kept an eye on the patient very carefully so he will follow the rules of the center. It has been proved that this treatment method works, but it may happen that the disorder comes back later.
4.Borderline personality disorder
Origin
Both hereditary factors and environmental factors play a role at the origin of a personality disorder.
Symptoms
People with a borderline personality disorder have problems maintaining a relationship. They often see small problems as huge ones.
About 2% of all the people suffer from borderline personality, about 75% of them are women. People with borderline diagnosis tend to be more liable for developing alcoholism, drug abuse, PTSD or a depression.
Treatment
The treatment of a borderline personality disorder differs from person to person.
Disorders in the ability to control oneself and treatment
1.Addiction to gambling
Origin
Mostly the problem originates when people start to gamble at a gambling machine when they have a night out. Often this gambling continues out of boredom which causes the addiction.
Symptoms
There is a continuous need to gamble and this costs money. This often leads to stealing and the patient gets social problems as a result.
Treatment
Addicts to gambling need professional help and they should get behavioral therapy. Often this happens too late and the patient has already accumulated large debts.
2.Kleptomania
Origin
Kleptomania is a strong desire to steal. Often a kleptomaniac person steals things he could have bought easily or things that are not at all expensive. The person steals just for the tension or the kick. Kleptomania can be the result of emotional shortcomings during the youth.
Symptoms
These patients have an irresistible inclination to steal. Often they throw away the stolen goods. They are mostly interested in the kick of the stealing itself. Although psychiatrists consider kleptomania as a disease, this is not a legal excuse in front of an American or British court.
Treatment
This disorder is rather easy to treat. It is important to find another occupation to replace the stealing activity. It is also very important to make the patient realize that others are harmed by the stealing activities.
3.Pyromania
Origin
Pyromania is a strong need to set things on fire. It is all about the kick it gives to see what other people have to do to extinguish the fire. The pyromaniac also enjoys reading about the effects of his activities. Pyromania can be the result of shortcomings during the youth.
Symptoms
The patient sets a lot on fire and enjoys to see what others have to do as a result of this. Often the pyromaniac is one of the spectators of the fire he has generated.
Treatment
This disorder is rather easy to treat. It is important to find another occupation to replace the arsons activities.
4.Suicidal tendencies
Origin
Suicidal tendencies are a common phenomena. They can have different causes. Often suicidal people have the impression that nobody cares about them. They are looking for more attention. They may even blackmail people by announcing to commit suicide if they will not do what they are asked to do.
Symptoms
People have a suicidal tendency, or they really commit suicide.
Treatment
If suicidal people do not get help in an early stage, there is not so much left to do. Even if they are placed in a guarded clinic, suicidal people tend to find a way to commit suicide. Even drowning oneself in a sink seems to be possible.
Real prevention is only possible if other people recognize the signals in time. It is important to talk to the patients, but without forcing them to do so. Forcing to talk even works contra-productive.
Psychotic disorders and treatment
1.Schizophrenia
Origin
The appearance of schizophrenia is partly hereditary. Previously people said that schizophrenia was caused by the education process, but people have come back from this thought.
High vulnerability for stress plays an important role in the origin of schizophrenia. Besides stressful situations also other influences from the environment are important. Which influences is not exactly known, but people think that problems during pregnancy or around the time of birth may play a role.
It is also known that there is a disorder in a particular chemical material in the brain responsible for the processing of information.
Symptoms
To recognize schizophrenia is not always easy. Often you cannot see it from the outside and it can take a while before the symptoms become noticeable. People who suffer from the disease cannot or do not want to express what their problems are. There are certain signals that can point to schizophrenia. Schizophrenia could exist if someone:
• is frightened or confused in a way others cannot understand;
• does not succeed to perform at work, in his study or hobby in a way to be expected;
• talks in a silly way, sometimes with new made up words;
• claims to hear voices or talks to imaginary people;
• tells stories about plots or secret organizations in which friends and relatives can take part;
• walks or moves in a weird manner in such a way that others feel uncomfortable;
• scares or irritates people by the way he neglects himself;
• has unpredictable explosions of rage;
• stays in bed all day, but goes around the house at night;
• threatens to hurt himself;
• does not have any friends or at the best short or superficial contacts;
• claims to be someone else;
• says that others pull thoughts out of his head or alternatively put them in.
Treatment
Schizophrenia cannot be cured yet, but in most cases it can be treated. Medication plays a big role in the treatment. The medicine most prescribed are anti-psychotics and an anti-parkinson medicine. The latter is used to diminish the side-effects of the anti-psychotics. Recently a new generation of medicine has become available, which gives excellent results for some patients.
Apart from medication, good education and support for the patient and family are important. Furthermore the patient should get help coping with society.
2.Paranoid
Origin
This physical disease originates from fear, mostly fear from the direct neighborhood. Often the person thinks that all kind of plots are set up against him.
Symptoms
Paranoid people are characterized by delusion; they continuously have the feeling of being threatened. But also other forms exist, for example suffering from acoustic or visual hallucinations; it may happen that they think they smell a poisonous gas.
Treatment
Most of the time it is not easy to treat a paranoid person. This is because the patient himself thinks that he is not ill and it is difficult to have him change his mind on this.
Firstly there needs to be a relation of trust between the patient and the person that treats him. This person also has to tell other people how to relate with the patient. Furthermore the patient needs to have the willingness to talk to the person that treats him.
3.Syndrome of Korsakov
Origin
The syndrome of Korsakov can be the result of a chronic form of alcoholism, but it can also be caused by a trauma of the brain.
Symptoms
The syndrome of Korsakov can result in a disorder of the ability to impress upon something and a disorientation of time, place and person. Also disorder of memory can occur.
Treatment
The syndrome cannot be healed. However, if the disease is caused by alcoholism to quit drinking will prevent deterioration.
4.Delirium
Origin
A delirium can appear on short notice and may also disappear on short notice. Causes of a delirium can be:
• Poisoning (from alcohol, drugs or medication)
• Abstinence of medicine or drugs
• Disorder of the hormone metabolism (diabetes)
• Infection diseases (pneumonia)
• Metabolism diseases (uremia)
• Heart and vascular diseases (coronary, stroke)
• Trauma of the skull or brain
• Dementia
Symptoms
A person suffering from a delirium has the following symptoms:
1. Its consciousness is not clear, he sees its environment different from which it is and he makes a dizzy impression.
2. He is disorientated; most of the time he does not know what time it is and where he is.
3. He observes strange things; he sees and hears things which are not there.
4. He cannot remember things because he is not clear.
These symptoms can be apparent in different levels of seriousness. A person can also have more trouble in the morning than at night. Treatment
There is always something physical going on with a delirium. The treatment of a delirium consists of a medical investigation to find the source and subsequently taking the cause away. Often the disease is solved after this.
Addiction and treatment
1.Alcoholism
Origin
Alcoholism can be a result of relationship problems, job problems or other important problems. It can also happen that people start drinking under pressure of their friends and cannot stop afterwards. But most of the time alcohol is being used to work of one's problems.
Symptoms
There is a continuous desire for alcohol which arouses guilt feelings. Often alcoholics are drowsy and listless.
Treatment
In most western countries the alcohol addiction is a major problem. That is why there are a lot of aid institutions which can help people cope with the problem.
Of course people just have to stop drinking, but it is not that simple. A treatment has to start with a cure for addiction. It is important that someone supervises the treatment, because it often happens that people drink furtive. It is also very important that people want to be cured.
A multidisciplinary treatment generates the best effects:
• A psychiatric treatment
• A phychotherapatic treatment, if necessary supported by medicine
• Taking part in the AA (Alcoholics Anonymous)
2.Drugs
Origin
We take heroin as an example because it is one of the most addictive drugs. People start using heroin because it generates a relaxed and pleasant feeling. This feeling is very addictive and after a while the body can no longer cope without it.
Symptoms
People addicted to heroin gradually get into a bad condition. They often have inflammations and their teeth become very bad. After a while many addicts start to use heroin in combination with alcohol, which intensifies the effect.
Treatment
Treatment against drug abuse is similar to that of alcohol abuse. Of course people just have to stop using drugs, but it is not that simple. A treatment has to start with a cure for addiction. It is important that someone supervises the treatment, because it often happens that people use drugs furtive. Also it is very important that people want to be cured.
A multidisciplinary treatment generates the best effects:
• A psychiatric treatment
• A phychotherapatic treatment, if necessary supported by medicine
Eating disorders and treatment
1. Anorexia nervosa
Origin
Over time different explanations are given for the origin of eating disorders. Probably the ideal of being slim and the related pressure put on woman, plays an important role.
These days people think a combination of physical, psychical and social factors influence anorexia nervosa:
1. There is a connection between eating behavior and depression.
2. Stuffing yourself can be looked upon as a form of conditioned behavior: after unpleasant experiences or frustrations someone immediately reaches for food.
3. A disturbed mother-child relation or the fear to become an adult can play a role. Anorexia nervosa will slow down the physical growth to adulthood.
4. Innate characteristics are probably of influence. It appears that anorexic patients often have a negative way of thinking, for example the desire to be perfect, thinking in extremes or having a negative image of themselves.
5. Certain family-characteristics appear more often among patients having eating disorders. The question is however whether these characteristics are the result or the cause of the eating disorder.
Symptoms
People with anorexia nervosa are constantly afraid of becoming fat and as a result suppress their appetite and the feeling of getting hungry. People with anorexia nervosa constantly and downwardly adjust their ideal weight. In spite of a serious loss of weight, they continuously consider themselves too fat. Over time they loose the normal feelings for appetite, hunger and satisfaction. They constantly watch the calories they eat and their eating pattern becomes more and more monotonous. Society only recognizes anorexia nervosa after the patient has lost a striking amount of weight. There are, however, several variants of anorexia nervosa, which makes detection complicated. There is a variant where periods of eating very little are alternated with periods of stuffing oneself followed by throwing up or the use of laxatives. Also abuse of diuretics exists.
Treatment
Several different treatments are in use to cure anorexia nervosa, but it is still not possible to conclude which one has the best results. Some treatments are more focussed on the eating behavior, others focus more on the psychical backgrounds. A combination of both methods is probably the most effective way.
In general, enforced therapies are not effective. Inferior treatment, in particular if it is enforced can aggravate the problems. It is important that the doctor in attendance has experience in the treatment of eating disorders.
One of the first targets of the treatment is the recovery of the normal weight. In addition, the treatment should try to improve the way people look at themselves, experience their body and establish and maintain social contacts and relations.
Often a special form of behavioral treatment is used. Step by step people are learned to accommodate to a rising weight by controlled exposure to the threatening situations.
With the help of a cognitive therapy people will be learned to change the wrong notions regarding their weight and their body.
2. Bulimia nervosa
Origin
Bulimia nervosa has mainly the same causes as anorexia nervosa:
1. There is a connection between eating behavior and depression; the exact nature of the connection is still unclear (what is the cause, what is the result).
2. Stuffing yourself can be looked upon as a form of conditioned behavior: after unpleasant experiences or frustrations someone immediately reaches for food.
3. Especially with bulimia nervosa traumatic experiences from the childhood can be on the origin of the eating disorder, for example ill-treatment and sexual abuse.
4. Innate characteristics are probably of influence. It appears that bulimic patients often have a negative way of thinking, for example the desire to be perfect, thinking in extremes or having a negative image of themselves.
5. Certain family-characteristics appear more often among patients having eating disorders. The question is however whether these characteristics are the result or the cause of the eating disorder.
Symptoms
People who suffer from bulimia nervosa stuff themselves often. They just eat whatever is close at hand and afterwards they try to throw up everything. These rituals of stuffing themselves are attempts to forget their problems.
Treatment
The treatment of bulimia is about the same as for anorexia nervosa.
In general, enforced therapy is not effective. Inferior treatment, in particular if it is enforced can aggravate the problems. It is important that the doctor in attendance has experience in the treatment of eating disorders.
One of the first targets of the treatment is the recovery of the normal weight. In addition the treatment should try to improve the way people look at themselves, experience their body and establish and maintain social contacts and relations.
Often a special form of behavioral treatment is used. Step by step people are learned to accommodate to a rising weight by controlled exposure to the threatening situations.
With the help of a cognitive therapy people will be learned to change the wrong notions regarding their weight and their body.
Jumaat, 19 Mac 2010
Psychology of behavior
1.Theory of behavior
According to Sigmund Freud, (1856-1939), human beings are just mechanical creatures, whom he views as prisoners of primitive instincts and powers, which we can barely control. He states that our purpose is to control these instincts and powers.
"The soul is like an iceberg; it contains a conscious part and an unconscious part."
His life
Living from 1856 to 1939, numerous scientific discoveries took place during his life. When Freud was still young, Darwins' The Origins of Species was published, and Fechner came up with the underlying basics of psychology.
Developments such as these had a tremendous effect on Freud's thoughts, yet the German, Helmholtz, was probably the person who had the greatest influence on Freud's way of thinking by drawing up the law of preservation of energy. This discovery is most likely the reason Freud started looking at people as a closed system of psychic energy that is floating between the conscious and the unconscious part of the human spirit.
The iceberg
Freud explained these concepts by comparing the human spirit to an iceberg. The visible part of the iceberg (spirit) is the conscious part, which consists of everything we know and remember and the thinking processes through which we function.
The unconscious part is made up of everything we have ever learned or experienced, including that which has been "forgotten". A part of these forgotten things are really gone, but the largest part of the unconscious has just been shut out, because it would be annoying to be consciously reminded of it.
The influences of Helmholtz are also visible at other points. According to Freud, the material in the unconscious contains psychic energy. This psychic energy is constantly trying to get into the conscious part, while the conscious part keeps using energy to suppress undesirable discoveries. An expression of unknown powers is, for example, slips of the tongue. These expressions show that our unconscious was not strong enough to keep these powers outside the conscious part.
Id, Ego and Superego
Now we are going back to the theory of the id, the ego and the superego. The spirit of a newborn child just has an id, the instinctive incentives and reflexes that the human beings have developed during the last centuries. The only function of the id is to respond to the incentives. The ego develops itself from the id and from the discovery that the behavior of the id can have tedious results. The superego, a result of a person's socialization, is basically just the conscience, which mediates between needs of the id and the ego. When you are getting older, you start to develop more and more values.
2.Basic drives and motives
Instincts
Philosophers in the seventeenth and eighteenth century (like Descartes and Hobbes)
shared a mechanistic view. They thought that some of our actions are the result of internal or external forces, which are not under voluntary control. Hobbes, for example, claimed that underlying reasons for behavior are the avoidance of pain and the quest for pleasure.
"Behavior is the result of instincts, which are present since birth."
The extreme of the mechanistic view is the theory of instincts. An instinct is an innate biological force, which commands the organism to behave in a particular way. The main advocate of the instinct theory was the psychologist McDougall. He hypothesized that all thinking and behavior is the result of instincts, which are fixed from birth, but which can be adjusted by learning and experience.
In his book Social Psychology McDougall enumerated several instinctive drives, like fear, curiosity, aggression and reproduction.
This list was expanded later with 8 other instincts. By changes and combinations of instincts he tried to explain the whole repertoire of human behavior.
The instinct theory was supported by many psycho-analysts. For example, Freud asserted that human behavior could be explained by two major instincts: the instinct to survive (such as a drive for sexual reproduction) and the instinct to avoid death, which causes aggression.
Quite soon, it became evident that many instincts were required to explain human behavior and, even worse, these instincts did not explain very much: so many instincts were postulated such that any type of behavior could be explained. A better phrasing would be to say that instincts provide a description of behavior, rather than an explanation.
In the 1920's instinct theory was replaced by the theory of drives. A driving force originates from a natural need, like thirst. Such a situation stimulates the organism to comply with the need. Lack of food causes chemical changes in the blood, which causes the need for food, which stimulates the organism to look for food.
3. Social influences
How do we learn social rolls?
As we grow and develop in our lives, we also develop social attitudes which strongly influence our behavior. We internalize the attitudes of the society around us by making the attitudes our own. Besides attitudes, people internalize cultural expectations about how to behave. The process through which society influences individuals to internalize attitudes and expectations is called socialization. Individuals do not automatically absorb, but gradually accept cultural attitudes and roles. The individual is often unaware of his acceptance of these socially derived roles, roles are often accepted unconsciously. This is usually accomplished through the imitation of role models.
"People are playing roles; the particular role depends on the expectations from society."
When do we act so?
When individuals "play" these roles dictated by the culture within which they live, they are sometimes conflicting with their own inner beliefs. Frequently, we may act as if we agree with our perceived social expectations, because we do not want to disappoint the people who expect us to meet a particular set of requirements. This can create an imbalance which may cause ones behavior to become illogical due to these perceived social influences.
How do we learn social rolls?
As we grow and develop in our lives, we also develop social attitudes which strongly influence our behavior. We internalize the attitudes of the society around us by making the attitudes our own. Besides attitudes, people internalize cultural expectations about how to behave. The process through which society influences individuals to internalize attitudes and expectations is called socialization. Individuals do not automatically absorb, but gradually accept cultural attitudes and roles. The individual is often unaware of his acceptance of these socially derived roles, roles are often accepted unconsciously. This is usually accomplished through the imitation of role models.
"People are playing roles; the particular role depends on the expectations from society."
When do we act so?
When individuals "play" these roles dictated by the culture within which they live, they are sometimes conflicting with their own inner beliefs. Frequently, we may act as if we agree with our perceived social expectations, because we do not want to disappoint the people who expect us to meet a particular set of requirements. This can create an imbalance which may cause ones behavior to become illogical due to these perceived social influences.
4.Emotions
What is emotion?
The word emotion includes a wide range of observable behaviors, expressed feelings, and changes in the body state. This diversity in intended meanings of the word emotion make it hard to study. For many of us emotions are very personal states, difficult to define or to identify except in the most obvious instances. Moreover, many aspects of emotion seem unconscious to us. Even simple emotional states appear to be much more complicated than states as hunger and thirst.
"The word emotion includes a broad repertoire of perceptions, expressions of feelings and bodily changes."
To clarify the concept of emotions, three definitions of various aspects of emotions can be distinguished:
1. Emotion is a feeling that is private and subjective. Humans can report an extraordinary range of states, which they can feel or experience. Some reports are accompanied by obvious signs of enjoyment or distress, but often these reports have no overt indicators. In many cases, the emotions we note in ourselves seem to be blends of different states.
2. Emotion is a state of psychological arousal an expression or display of distinctive somatic and autonomic responses. This emphasis suggests, that emotional states can be defined by particular constellations of bodily responses. Specifically, these responses involve autonomously innervated visceral organs, like the heart or stomach. This second aspect of emotion allows us to examine emotions in both animals and human beings.
3. Emotions are actions commonly "deemed", such as defending or attacking in response to a threat. This aspect of emotion is especially relevant to Darwin's
4. point of view of the functional roles of emotion. He said that emotions had an important survival role because they generated actions to dangerous situations.
These are three generally accepted aspects of behavior, but some researchers add two others aspects: motivational state and cognitive processing.
Categories
Some psychologists have tried to subdivide emotions in categories. For example Wilhelm Wundt, the great nineteenth century psychologist, offered the view that emotions consist of three basic dimensions, each one of a pair of opposite states: pleasantness/unpleasantness, tension/release and excitement/relaxation. However, this list has become more complex over time.
Plutchik suggests that there are eight basic emotions grouped in four pairs of opposites:
1. joy/sadness
2. acceptance/disgust
3. anger/fear
4. surprise/anticipation
In Plutchik's view, all emotions are a combination of these basic emotions. This hypothesis can be summarized in a three dimensional cone with a vertical dimension reflecting emotional intensity.
According to Sigmund Freud, (1856-1939), human beings are just mechanical creatures, whom he views as prisoners of primitive instincts and powers, which we can barely control. He states that our purpose is to control these instincts and powers.
"The soul is like an iceberg; it contains a conscious part and an unconscious part."
His life
Living from 1856 to 1939, numerous scientific discoveries took place during his life. When Freud was still young, Darwins' The Origins of Species was published, and Fechner came up with the underlying basics of psychology.
Developments such as these had a tremendous effect on Freud's thoughts, yet the German, Helmholtz, was probably the person who had the greatest influence on Freud's way of thinking by drawing up the law of preservation of energy. This discovery is most likely the reason Freud started looking at people as a closed system of psychic energy that is floating between the conscious and the unconscious part of the human spirit.
The iceberg
Freud explained these concepts by comparing the human spirit to an iceberg. The visible part of the iceberg (spirit) is the conscious part, which consists of everything we know and remember and the thinking processes through which we function.
The unconscious part is made up of everything we have ever learned or experienced, including that which has been "forgotten". A part of these forgotten things are really gone, but the largest part of the unconscious has just been shut out, because it would be annoying to be consciously reminded of it.
The influences of Helmholtz are also visible at other points. According to Freud, the material in the unconscious contains psychic energy. This psychic energy is constantly trying to get into the conscious part, while the conscious part keeps using energy to suppress undesirable discoveries. An expression of unknown powers is, for example, slips of the tongue. These expressions show that our unconscious was not strong enough to keep these powers outside the conscious part.
Id, Ego and Superego
Now we are going back to the theory of the id, the ego and the superego. The spirit of a newborn child just has an id, the instinctive incentives and reflexes that the human beings have developed during the last centuries. The only function of the id is to respond to the incentives. The ego develops itself from the id and from the discovery that the behavior of the id can have tedious results. The superego, a result of a person's socialization, is basically just the conscience, which mediates between needs of the id and the ego. When you are getting older, you start to develop more and more values.
2.Basic drives and motives
Instincts
Philosophers in the seventeenth and eighteenth century (like Descartes and Hobbes)
shared a mechanistic view. They thought that some of our actions are the result of internal or external forces, which are not under voluntary control. Hobbes, for example, claimed that underlying reasons for behavior are the avoidance of pain and the quest for pleasure.
"Behavior is the result of instincts, which are present since birth."
The extreme of the mechanistic view is the theory of instincts. An instinct is an innate biological force, which commands the organism to behave in a particular way. The main advocate of the instinct theory was the psychologist McDougall. He hypothesized that all thinking and behavior is the result of instincts, which are fixed from birth, but which can be adjusted by learning and experience.
In his book Social Psychology McDougall enumerated several instinctive drives, like fear, curiosity, aggression and reproduction.
This list was expanded later with 8 other instincts. By changes and combinations of instincts he tried to explain the whole repertoire of human behavior.
The instinct theory was supported by many psycho-analysts. For example, Freud asserted that human behavior could be explained by two major instincts: the instinct to survive (such as a drive for sexual reproduction) and the instinct to avoid death, which causes aggression.
Quite soon, it became evident that many instincts were required to explain human behavior and, even worse, these instincts did not explain very much: so many instincts were postulated such that any type of behavior could be explained. A better phrasing would be to say that instincts provide a description of behavior, rather than an explanation.
In the 1920's instinct theory was replaced by the theory of drives. A driving force originates from a natural need, like thirst. Such a situation stimulates the organism to comply with the need. Lack of food causes chemical changes in the blood, which causes the need for food, which stimulates the organism to look for food.
3. Social influences
How do we learn social rolls?
As we grow and develop in our lives, we also develop social attitudes which strongly influence our behavior. We internalize the attitudes of the society around us by making the attitudes our own. Besides attitudes, people internalize cultural expectations about how to behave. The process through which society influences individuals to internalize attitudes and expectations is called socialization. Individuals do not automatically absorb, but gradually accept cultural attitudes and roles. The individual is often unaware of his acceptance of these socially derived roles, roles are often accepted unconsciously. This is usually accomplished through the imitation of role models.
"People are playing roles; the particular role depends on the expectations from society."
When do we act so?
When individuals "play" these roles dictated by the culture within which they live, they are sometimes conflicting with their own inner beliefs. Frequently, we may act as if we agree with our perceived social expectations, because we do not want to disappoint the people who expect us to meet a particular set of requirements. This can create an imbalance which may cause ones behavior to become illogical due to these perceived social influences.
How do we learn social rolls?
As we grow and develop in our lives, we also develop social attitudes which strongly influence our behavior. We internalize the attitudes of the society around us by making the attitudes our own. Besides attitudes, people internalize cultural expectations about how to behave. The process through which society influences individuals to internalize attitudes and expectations is called socialization. Individuals do not automatically absorb, but gradually accept cultural attitudes and roles. The individual is often unaware of his acceptance of these socially derived roles, roles are often accepted unconsciously. This is usually accomplished through the imitation of role models.
"People are playing roles; the particular role depends on the expectations from society."
When do we act so?
When individuals "play" these roles dictated by the culture within which they live, they are sometimes conflicting with their own inner beliefs. Frequently, we may act as if we agree with our perceived social expectations, because we do not want to disappoint the people who expect us to meet a particular set of requirements. This can create an imbalance which may cause ones behavior to become illogical due to these perceived social influences.
4.Emotions
What is emotion?
The word emotion includes a wide range of observable behaviors, expressed feelings, and changes in the body state. This diversity in intended meanings of the word emotion make it hard to study. For many of us emotions are very personal states, difficult to define or to identify except in the most obvious instances. Moreover, many aspects of emotion seem unconscious to us. Even simple emotional states appear to be much more complicated than states as hunger and thirst.
"The word emotion includes a broad repertoire of perceptions, expressions of feelings and bodily changes."
To clarify the concept of emotions, three definitions of various aspects of emotions can be distinguished:
1. Emotion is a feeling that is private and subjective. Humans can report an extraordinary range of states, which they can feel or experience. Some reports are accompanied by obvious signs of enjoyment or distress, but often these reports have no overt indicators. In many cases, the emotions we note in ourselves seem to be blends of different states.
2. Emotion is a state of psychological arousal an expression or display of distinctive somatic and autonomic responses. This emphasis suggests, that emotional states can be defined by particular constellations of bodily responses. Specifically, these responses involve autonomously innervated visceral organs, like the heart or stomach. This second aspect of emotion allows us to examine emotions in both animals and human beings.
3. Emotions are actions commonly "deemed", such as defending or attacking in response to a threat. This aspect of emotion is especially relevant to Darwin's
4. point of view of the functional roles of emotion. He said that emotions had an important survival role because they generated actions to dangerous situations.
These are three generally accepted aspects of behavior, but some researchers add two others aspects: motivational state and cognitive processing.
Categories
Some psychologists have tried to subdivide emotions in categories. For example Wilhelm Wundt, the great nineteenth century psychologist, offered the view that emotions consist of three basic dimensions, each one of a pair of opposite states: pleasantness/unpleasantness, tension/release and excitement/relaxation. However, this list has become more complex over time.
Plutchik suggests that there are eight basic emotions grouped in four pairs of opposites:
1. joy/sadness
2. acceptance/disgust
3. anger/fear
4. surprise/anticipation
In Plutchik's view, all emotions are a combination of these basic emotions. This hypothesis can be summarized in a three dimensional cone with a vertical dimension reflecting emotional intensity.
Khamis, 18 Mac 2010
Behavioral disorders
What is (ab)normal behavior?"
What is Abnormal?
Before we can write about specific behavioral disorders, we must define 'abnormal'. And what is normal behavior?
The following criteria are used to determine wheter a persons behavior is abnormal or not:
1. Deviation from statistical norms;the word abnormal means 'away from the norm'. Many population facts are measured such as height, weight and intelligence. Most of the people fall within the middle range of intelligence, but a few are abnormally stupid. But according to this definition, a person who is extremely intelligent would be classified as abnormal. Thus in defining abnormal behavior we must consider more.
2. Deviation from social norms; every vulture has certain standards for acceptable behavior; behavior that deviates from that standard is considered to be abnormal behavior. But those standards can change with time and vary from one society to another.
3. Maladaptiveness of behavior; this third criterium is how the behavior affects the well-being of the individual and/or social group. Examples are a man who attempts suicide, an alcoholic who drinks so heavily that he or she cannot keep a job or a paranoid individual who tries to assasinate national leaders.
4. Personal distress; the fourth criterium considers abnormality in terms of the individual's subjective feelings, personal distress, rather than his behavior. Most people diagnosed as 'mentally ill' feel miserable, anxious, depressed and may suffer from insomnia.
In the type of abnormality called neurosis, personal distress may be the only symptom, because the individual's behavior seems normal.
None of these definitions provides a complete description of abnormal behavior. The legal definition of abnormality declares a person insane when he is not able to judge between right and wrong, but this criterium is not used by psychologists.
Consequences of Alcoholism
Alcoholism is a great problem, it is estimated that in the United States 9 million people are alcoholics or problem drinkers, in Holland there are about 650,000. The costs for medical care are enormous, in Holland this is about 5 billion every year. Other consequences of alcoholism are criminality, traffic problems and suicide.
"What causes alcohol addiction?"
Definitions
There are various definitions of alcoholism, but they all include the fact that the alcoholic is inable to abstain alcohol, and lack of control over themselves.
Test your Drinking
The following test you can do yourself to determine whether you might have a drinking problem or not:
Below are some questions that will help you how dependent you are on drinking:
1. Has someone close to you sometimes expressed concern about your drinking?
2. When faced with a problem, do you often turn to alcohol for relief?
3. Are you sometimes unable to meet home or work responsibilities because of drinking?
4. have you ever required medical attention as a result of drinking?
5. Have you ever experienced a blackout-a total loss of memory while still awake- when drinking?
6. Have you ever come in conflict with the law in connection with your drinking?
7. Have you often failed to keep the promises you have made to yourself about controlling or cutting your drinking?
If you answered -yes- to one of the questions above, you might consider to do something about it before it gets worse.
(source: National institute on Alcohol abuse and Alcoholism, 1977).
Stages in Drinking
Becoming an alcoholic you describe the following stages: the prealcoholic stage, individuals drink socially and to relieve tension and to forget problems. The prodomal stage, drinking becomes furtive and the individual drinks more and more. The crucial stage, once the individual starts drinking he cannot stop untill he is getting sick. This stage is called crucial because when the individual do not get help in this stage, he will get into the next stage. The last stage is the chronic stage, drinking is now continual and the individual can get medical problems as the result of alcohol.
Causes
There is no generally accepted theory of alcoholism. Some evidence suggest it is something hereditary, others say that children having alcoholic parents have a big change of becoming an alcoholic.
The common-sense view is that people drink to reduce anxiety, often as the result of problems, and to relieve tension. This might be a reason why people start drinking, but this is no explanation why people continue drinking. Another motive for start drinking for young people is to keep up with their peers.
What is Alzheimer's disease?
Alzheimer's Disease is a progressive degenerative disease of the brain now considered a leading cause of dementia. Alzheimer's disease was first described by the German neuropathologist Alois Alzheimer in 1906, it affects an estimated 2.5 to 3 million people in the United States. In the United Kingdom, the number of individuals with this condition is estimated to rise to over 1 million by the year 2010. Percentage rates (cases per 100 individuals of 65 years and over) worldwide vary considerably between 0.6 in China to 10.3 in Massachusetts, United States. The incidence of the disease increases with advancing age, but there is no evidence that it is caused by the aging process.
"Patients suffering Alzheimer's disease lose nervous cells in parts of the brain involved in cognitive processes."
Cause and Diagnosis
The average life expectancy of people with the disease is between five and ten years, although many patients now survive 15 years or more due to improvements in care and medical treatment. The cause of this disease has not been discovered, although palliative therapy is available. The ability of doctors to diagnose Alzheimer's disease has improved in recent years, but this remains a process of elimination and final diagnosis can be confirmed only by post-mortem.
Alzheimer's patients show nerve cell loss in the parts of the brain associated with cognitive functioning. The hallmark lesions of Alzheimer's disease include the formation of abnormal proteins. Alzheimer's disease is also characterized by profound deficits in the brain's neurotransmitters which has been linked with memory function.
What is Autism?
Autism (from the Greek word autos, which means self) is a severe infant disorder of behavior that develops before the age of three. The term is used to describe many types of mental disorders, but, as originally named in 1943 by the American child psychologist Leo Kanner, early infantile autism describes a rare cluster of symptoms. Its incidence is approximately 1 in 2,500.
"A child suffering autism is unable to use language in a meaningful way and to process information in the proper way."
Characteristics
An autistic child is unable to use language meaningfully or to process information from the environment. About half of all autistic children are mute, and those who speak often only repeat what they have heard. The term autism refers to their vacant, withdrawn appearance, but its connotation of voluntary detachment is inappropriate.
Other characteristics of autism include an uneven pattern of development, a fascination with mechanical objects, a ritualistic response to environmental stimuli, and a resistance to any change in the environment. Some autistic children have precocious ability, such as mathematical skills.
Cause, Prognosis and Treatment
The cause, prognosis, and treatment of autism are still under study. Research suggests a genetic defect as the cause of the disorder, which may be some form of autoimmune disease or degenerative disease of nerve cells in the brain. The best treatment is special education, stressing learning in small groups, and strict behavioral control of the child. Treatment with drugs such as fenfluramine and haloperidol is also being tested. In general, prognosis is poor for those autistic children who remain mute past the age of five. Children who speak fare better, and some of them recover.
What are Phobias?
Phobias are excessive fears in specific situations when there is no real danger or fears that are totally out of proportions. Most of the time the person with a phobia realizes that his fear is irrational and illogical but he still feels anxiety. Avoiding the feared situation can only relieve this anxiety.
"Phobias are extreme fears in specific situations in the absence of a real threat."
Most of us are afraid for something; snakes, heights, doctors, injury or death are the most reported fears. But a fear is different from a phobia.
A fear is usually not diagnosed as a phobia unless it causes big problems in the person's daily life. An example of this is a woman with a phobia for enclosed places, she will notice her phobia when she want to use elevators.
Explanations
There are a number of explanations about how phobias develop. Some phobias may result from frightening experiences. For example, you might develop fear for flying after experiencing a near air disaster. Once such a phobia develops, the individual may go to great lengths to avoid the feared situation, and so eliminating a possible fear.
Other phobias may be learned through observation. fearful parents tend to produce children who share their fears. This phobia might be inherited, but it is more likely that parents provide a model and that the children imitate that model.
Other phobias might develop because they are rewarded. When a child is afraid of going to school because he will be separated from his parents for a while, he will say he has a stomachache or something like that. Then his parents reward him with the comfort of staying home with his parents.
Treatments
Behavioral techniques have proved successful in treating phobias, especially simple and social phobias. One technique, systematic desensitization, involves confronting the phobic person with situations or objects that are feared. Exposure therapy, another behavioral method, has recently been shown to be more effective. In this technique, phobias are repeatedly exposed to the feared situation or object so that they can see that no harm befalls them; the fear gradually fades. Antianxiety drugs have also been used as palliatives. Drugs to treat depression have also proved successful in treating some phobias.
What is Abnormal?
Before we can write about specific behavioral disorders, we must define 'abnormal'. And what is normal behavior?
The following criteria are used to determine wheter a persons behavior is abnormal or not:
1. Deviation from statistical norms;the word abnormal means 'away from the norm'. Many population facts are measured such as height, weight and intelligence. Most of the people fall within the middle range of intelligence, but a few are abnormally stupid. But according to this definition, a person who is extremely intelligent would be classified as abnormal. Thus in defining abnormal behavior we must consider more.
2. Deviation from social norms; every vulture has certain standards for acceptable behavior; behavior that deviates from that standard is considered to be abnormal behavior. But those standards can change with time and vary from one society to another.
3. Maladaptiveness of behavior; this third criterium is how the behavior affects the well-being of the individual and/or social group. Examples are a man who attempts suicide, an alcoholic who drinks so heavily that he or she cannot keep a job or a paranoid individual who tries to assasinate national leaders.
4. Personal distress; the fourth criterium considers abnormality in terms of the individual's subjective feelings, personal distress, rather than his behavior. Most people diagnosed as 'mentally ill' feel miserable, anxious, depressed and may suffer from insomnia.
In the type of abnormality called neurosis, personal distress may be the only symptom, because the individual's behavior seems normal.
None of these definitions provides a complete description of abnormal behavior. The legal definition of abnormality declares a person insane when he is not able to judge between right and wrong, but this criterium is not used by psychologists.
Consequences of Alcoholism
Alcoholism is a great problem, it is estimated that in the United States 9 million people are alcoholics or problem drinkers, in Holland there are about 650,000. The costs for medical care are enormous, in Holland this is about 5 billion every year. Other consequences of alcoholism are criminality, traffic problems and suicide.
"What causes alcohol addiction?"
Definitions
There are various definitions of alcoholism, but they all include the fact that the alcoholic is inable to abstain alcohol, and lack of control over themselves.
Test your Drinking
The following test you can do yourself to determine whether you might have a drinking problem or not:
Below are some questions that will help you how dependent you are on drinking:
1. Has someone close to you sometimes expressed concern about your drinking?
2. When faced with a problem, do you often turn to alcohol for relief?
3. Are you sometimes unable to meet home or work responsibilities because of drinking?
4. have you ever required medical attention as a result of drinking?
5. Have you ever experienced a blackout-a total loss of memory while still awake- when drinking?
6. Have you ever come in conflict with the law in connection with your drinking?
7. Have you often failed to keep the promises you have made to yourself about controlling or cutting your drinking?
If you answered -yes- to one of the questions above, you might consider to do something about it before it gets worse.
(source: National institute on Alcohol abuse and Alcoholism, 1977).
Stages in Drinking
Becoming an alcoholic you describe the following stages: the prealcoholic stage, individuals drink socially and to relieve tension and to forget problems. The prodomal stage, drinking becomes furtive and the individual drinks more and more. The crucial stage, once the individual starts drinking he cannot stop untill he is getting sick. This stage is called crucial because when the individual do not get help in this stage, he will get into the next stage. The last stage is the chronic stage, drinking is now continual and the individual can get medical problems as the result of alcohol.
Causes
There is no generally accepted theory of alcoholism. Some evidence suggest it is something hereditary, others say that children having alcoholic parents have a big change of becoming an alcoholic.
The common-sense view is that people drink to reduce anxiety, often as the result of problems, and to relieve tension. This might be a reason why people start drinking, but this is no explanation why people continue drinking. Another motive for start drinking for young people is to keep up with their peers.
What is Alzheimer's disease?
Alzheimer's Disease is a progressive degenerative disease of the brain now considered a leading cause of dementia. Alzheimer's disease was first described by the German neuropathologist Alois Alzheimer in 1906, it affects an estimated 2.5 to 3 million people in the United States. In the United Kingdom, the number of individuals with this condition is estimated to rise to over 1 million by the year 2010. Percentage rates (cases per 100 individuals of 65 years and over) worldwide vary considerably between 0.6 in China to 10.3 in Massachusetts, United States. The incidence of the disease increases with advancing age, but there is no evidence that it is caused by the aging process.
"Patients suffering Alzheimer's disease lose nervous cells in parts of the brain involved in cognitive processes."
Cause and Diagnosis
The average life expectancy of people with the disease is between five and ten years, although many patients now survive 15 years or more due to improvements in care and medical treatment. The cause of this disease has not been discovered, although palliative therapy is available. The ability of doctors to diagnose Alzheimer's disease has improved in recent years, but this remains a process of elimination and final diagnosis can be confirmed only by post-mortem.
Alzheimer's patients show nerve cell loss in the parts of the brain associated with cognitive functioning. The hallmark lesions of Alzheimer's disease include the formation of abnormal proteins. Alzheimer's disease is also characterized by profound deficits in the brain's neurotransmitters which has been linked with memory function.
What is Autism?
Autism (from the Greek word autos, which means self) is a severe infant disorder of behavior that develops before the age of three. The term is used to describe many types of mental disorders, but, as originally named in 1943 by the American child psychologist Leo Kanner, early infantile autism describes a rare cluster of symptoms. Its incidence is approximately 1 in 2,500.
"A child suffering autism is unable to use language in a meaningful way and to process information in the proper way."
Characteristics
An autistic child is unable to use language meaningfully or to process information from the environment. About half of all autistic children are mute, and those who speak often only repeat what they have heard. The term autism refers to their vacant, withdrawn appearance, but its connotation of voluntary detachment is inappropriate.
Other characteristics of autism include an uneven pattern of development, a fascination with mechanical objects, a ritualistic response to environmental stimuli, and a resistance to any change in the environment. Some autistic children have precocious ability, such as mathematical skills.
Cause, Prognosis and Treatment
The cause, prognosis, and treatment of autism are still under study. Research suggests a genetic defect as the cause of the disorder, which may be some form of autoimmune disease or degenerative disease of nerve cells in the brain. The best treatment is special education, stressing learning in small groups, and strict behavioral control of the child. Treatment with drugs such as fenfluramine and haloperidol is also being tested. In general, prognosis is poor for those autistic children who remain mute past the age of five. Children who speak fare better, and some of them recover.
What are Phobias?
Phobias are excessive fears in specific situations when there is no real danger or fears that are totally out of proportions. Most of the time the person with a phobia realizes that his fear is irrational and illogical but he still feels anxiety. Avoiding the feared situation can only relieve this anxiety.
"Phobias are extreme fears in specific situations in the absence of a real threat."
Most of us are afraid for something; snakes, heights, doctors, injury or death are the most reported fears. But a fear is different from a phobia.
A fear is usually not diagnosed as a phobia unless it causes big problems in the person's daily life. An example of this is a woman with a phobia for enclosed places, she will notice her phobia when she want to use elevators.
Explanations
There are a number of explanations about how phobias develop. Some phobias may result from frightening experiences. For example, you might develop fear for flying after experiencing a near air disaster. Once such a phobia develops, the individual may go to great lengths to avoid the feared situation, and so eliminating a possible fear.
Other phobias may be learned through observation. fearful parents tend to produce children who share their fears. This phobia might be inherited, but it is more likely that parents provide a model and that the children imitate that model.
Other phobias might develop because they are rewarded. When a child is afraid of going to school because he will be separated from his parents for a while, he will say he has a stomachache or something like that. Then his parents reward him with the comfort of staying home with his parents.
Treatments
Behavioral techniques have proved successful in treating phobias, especially simple and social phobias. One technique, systematic desensitization, involves confronting the phobic person with situations or objects that are feared. Exposure therapy, another behavioral method, has recently been shown to be more effective. In this technique, phobias are repeatedly exposed to the feared situation or object so that they can see that no harm befalls them; the fear gradually fades. Antianxiety drugs have also been used as palliatives. Drugs to treat depression have also proved successful in treating some phobias.
Daily behavior
Accidental Gestures
Many of our gestures are unintentional. We scratch our head to remove itch, but not to convey a message to someone else. Although these acts have no specific purpose with regard to inter-personal communication, they may reveal information about a person. For example, people, who are nervous, tend to scratch their head more frequently than others. Therefore, it is difficult to hide emotional feelings, since many unintentional movements do reveal information.
"We make some gestures unconsciously; yet they often have a meaning."
For example, if a student following a course puts his head to rest in his hands, it may reflect fatigue, but will also reflect that the course is boring, as most people do not feel tired when courses are interesting and exciting.
Those "unintentional" acts can also be used intentionally. For example, a student who wants to tease a teacher, may pretend that the course is boring by putting his head at rest in his hands.
Many people are fat or have overweight and want to loose some weight. That is why they are pleased to read that the packing of a product has the words "light" or "less fat". Usually, these words give reliable information about the content of the food package, but quite frequently the message is not unbiased.
"Words such as 'light' on a product have a psychological meaning."
Remarks like "light" have a psychological meaning. People who want to loose weight, usually have quite some appetite. They more or less make a compromise by buying "light" food, but eating the same amount of food or even more. As a result, they do not loose weight but take about the same amount of calories, as they would when buying regular
Body Language
Body language is usually more informative than words. Words by other people usually tell you what other people WANT to say, while body posture usually tells, what they really feel and think. They express for example emotions, thoughts and how they think. It is easier to lie with words, than with body language.
"When you change your body language, people will respond in a different way."
Consequences of Body Language
Psychologists have found out that when people try to simulate body language, they change many other things. By walking more upright, people may really feel more confident. When body language is changed, people will respond different to these changes. Body language, therefore, has consequences for the interaction with other people.
Meeting People
When you meet a person for the first time, the first 10 seconds will give an impression, which to a large extent will determine whether you will like this person or not. In these first ten seconds, you will notice impressions like nervousness, seriousness, etc. These first seconds will also influence to a large extent the rest of the conversation and any further contacts. Therefore the first impression is very important.
"The first ten seconds of a meeting determine the impression you make on other people."
Eyes
An important factor in the first contact is the eyes. The eyes should look at the person. If you want to impress the person, you should open your eyes slightly more than usual, since raising the eye brows gives people the impression that they are welcome. After the first "hello", you should maintain eye contact, which prevents the impression of nervousness with the other person. You should also smile and look friendly.
First Meeting
During the first meeting, it is good to look carefully at the other person. If he or she disapproves your behavior, you should adapt your behavior. Also, behavior should be appropriate for the situation. For example, a firm and long hand shaking is quite usual for meeting a friend you have not seen for a long time, but quite inappropriate on a funeral.
The way you breath
By breathing you not only provides oxygen for the body. Breathing also reflects how you feel. When you are nervous or angry you will breath faster, and when you are sad you often breath in jerks. Like when you are crying.
Your breathings are also signs: when you want to interrupt a speaking person you can do that by inhaling loudly and shortly, a loud sigh means that you understand the thing that is being told to you.
Shrugged shoulders
You can recognize stressed shoulders by the fact that they are a bit shrugged, which does make the head look smaller. The meaning of the signal comes from crouching in dangerous situations.
The meaning of this posing depends on the combination. In combination with big eyes it means that someone is concerned about something that is going to happen. In combination with a face that is turned away it means that the person wants to be left alone. An introvert person has nearly always those stressed shoulders.
Difference in level of both shoulders
By most of the people the left and the right shoulder are of the same height. When they are not, it often means that someone is doubting about what he is going to do. With this movement we simulate (unconscious) that we are weighing the possibilities. Sometimes when someone makes this movement, his head will move a little like he is looking above.
Many of our gestures are unintentional. We scratch our head to remove itch, but not to convey a message to someone else. Although these acts have no specific purpose with regard to inter-personal communication, they may reveal information about a person. For example, people, who are nervous, tend to scratch their head more frequently than others. Therefore, it is difficult to hide emotional feelings, since many unintentional movements do reveal information.
"We make some gestures unconsciously; yet they often have a meaning."
For example, if a student following a course puts his head to rest in his hands, it may reflect fatigue, but will also reflect that the course is boring, as most people do not feel tired when courses are interesting and exciting.
Those "unintentional" acts can also be used intentionally. For example, a student who wants to tease a teacher, may pretend that the course is boring by putting his head at rest in his hands.
Many people are fat or have overweight and want to loose some weight. That is why they are pleased to read that the packing of a product has the words "light" or "less fat". Usually, these words give reliable information about the content of the food package, but quite frequently the message is not unbiased.
"Words such as 'light' on a product have a psychological meaning."
Remarks like "light" have a psychological meaning. People who want to loose weight, usually have quite some appetite. They more or less make a compromise by buying "light" food, but eating the same amount of food or even more. As a result, they do not loose weight but take about the same amount of calories, as they would when buying regular
Body Language
Body language is usually more informative than words. Words by other people usually tell you what other people WANT to say, while body posture usually tells, what they really feel and think. They express for example emotions, thoughts and how they think. It is easier to lie with words, than with body language.
"When you change your body language, people will respond in a different way."
Consequences of Body Language
Psychologists have found out that when people try to simulate body language, they change many other things. By walking more upright, people may really feel more confident. When body language is changed, people will respond different to these changes. Body language, therefore, has consequences for the interaction with other people.
Meeting People
When you meet a person for the first time, the first 10 seconds will give an impression, which to a large extent will determine whether you will like this person or not. In these first ten seconds, you will notice impressions like nervousness, seriousness, etc. These first seconds will also influence to a large extent the rest of the conversation and any further contacts. Therefore the first impression is very important.
"The first ten seconds of a meeting determine the impression you make on other people."
Eyes
An important factor in the first contact is the eyes. The eyes should look at the person. If you want to impress the person, you should open your eyes slightly more than usual, since raising the eye brows gives people the impression that they are welcome. After the first "hello", you should maintain eye contact, which prevents the impression of nervousness with the other person. You should also smile and look friendly.
First Meeting
During the first meeting, it is good to look carefully at the other person. If he or she disapproves your behavior, you should adapt your behavior. Also, behavior should be appropriate for the situation. For example, a firm and long hand shaking is quite usual for meeting a friend you have not seen for a long time, but quite inappropriate on a funeral.
The way you breath
By breathing you not only provides oxygen for the body. Breathing also reflects how you feel. When you are nervous or angry you will breath faster, and when you are sad you often breath in jerks. Like when you are crying.
Your breathings are also signs: when you want to interrupt a speaking person you can do that by inhaling loudly and shortly, a loud sigh means that you understand the thing that is being told to you.
Shrugged shoulders
You can recognize stressed shoulders by the fact that they are a bit shrugged, which does make the head look smaller. The meaning of the signal comes from crouching in dangerous situations.
The meaning of this posing depends on the combination. In combination with big eyes it means that someone is concerned about something that is going to happen. In combination with a face that is turned away it means that the person wants to be left alone. An introvert person has nearly always those stressed shoulders.
Difference in level of both shoulders
By most of the people the left and the right shoulder are of the same height. When they are not, it often means that someone is doubting about what he is going to do. With this movement we simulate (unconscious) that we are weighing the possibilities. Sometimes when someone makes this movement, his head will move a little like he is looking above.
PRINSIP-PRINSIP BARU PENGISIAN JAWATAN GURU BESAR DI SEKOLAH RENDAH DAN PENGETUA DI SEKOLAH MENENGAH KEMENTERIAN PELAJARAN MALAYSIA
Semua Ketua Jabatan/Bahagian,
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia
Semua Pengarah Pelajaran Negeri
Semua Pegawai Pelajaran Daerah
Y.Bhg. Datuk/Dato’/Datin/Tuan/Puan,
PRINSIP-PRINSIP BARU PENGISIAN JAWATAN GURU BESAR DI SEKOLAH RENDAH DAN PENGETUA DI SEKOLAH MENENGAH KEMENTERIAN PELAJARAN MALAYSIA
Dengan segala hormatnya saya merujuk kepada perkara di atas.
2. Adalah dimaklumkan bahawa Mesyuarat Pengurusan Tertinggi Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia (KPM) Bil. 10 Tahun 2009 yang bersidang pada 15 Julai 2009 telah bersetuju untuk mewujudkan satu dasar yang lebih komprehensif, adil, saksama dan telus bagi laluan kerjaya Guru Besar di sekolah rendah dan Pengetua di sekolah menengah. Berikutan daripada keputusan tersebut, prinsip-prinsip baru pengisian jawatan Guru Besar di sekolah rendah dan jawatan Pengetua di sekolah menengah telahpun diluluskan melalui Mesyuarat Pengurusan Tertinggi KPM Bil. 13 Tahun 2009 yang bersidang pada 26 Ogos 2009. Sehubungan dengan itu, surat siaran ini bertujuan untuk memaklumkan prinsip-prinsip baru pengisian jawatan Guru Besar di sekolah rendah dan jawatan Pengetua di sekolah menengah.
3. Prinsip-prinsip baru pengisian jawatan naik pangkat Guru Besar di sekolah rendah dan Pengetua untuk sekolah menengah adalah seperti berikut:
3.1 Prinsip-Prinsip Baru Pengisian Jawatan Naik Pangkat Guru Penolong Kanan Dan Guru Besar Di Sekolah Rendah
3.1.1 Pengisian Jawatan Guru Penolong Kanan (GPK) dan Guru Besar (GB) Gred DGA32
(a) Pengisian jawatan GPK dan Guru Besar gred DGA32 akan dibuat secara pemangkuan oleh calon gred DGA29 ataupun pengisian oleh calon Gred DGA32 Time Based.
(b) Pegawai Perkhidmatan Pendidikan Lepasan Diploma (PPPLD) gred DGA29 boleh memohon untuk urusan pemangkuan jawatan GPK atau Guru Besar gred DGA32. Walaubagaimanapun, keutamaaan diberikan kepada calon-calon yang mempunyai pengalaman dalam menjalankan tugas-tugas pentadbiran mengikut salah satu daripada bidang-bidang seperti berikut :
(i) Guru Penyelaras Bistari
(ii) Guru Perpustakaan/Media
(iii) Guru Data
(iv) Guru Disiplin
(v) Setiausaha Peperiksaan
(vi) Guru Darjah
(vii) Guru Kanan Mata Pelajaran
(viii) Guru Bimbingan
(c) Mana-mana pegawai gred DGA32 di Pejabat Pelajaran Daerah (PPD), Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri (JPN) dan Bahagian di KPM yang mempunyai pengalaman sebagai Guru Besar atau GPK juga boleh memohon untuk pengisian jawatan GPK atau GB gred DGA32.
3.1.2 Pengisian Jawatan Guru Besar Gred DGA34
(a) Keutamaan diberikan kepada Guru Besar gred DGA32 dan GPK gred DGA32 dalam urusan pemangkuan / kenaikan pangkat ke gred DGA34.
(b) Mana-mana pegawai gred DGA32 di Pejabat Pelajaran Daerah (PPD), Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri (JPN) dan Bahagian di KPM yang mempunyai pengalaman sebagai Guru Besar atau GPK juga boleh memohon untuk urusan pemangkuan bagi mengisi jawatan Guru Besar gred DGA34.
(c) Mana-mana pegawai gred DGA34 di Pejabat Pelajaran Daerah (PPD), Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri (JPN) dan Bahagian di KPM yang mempunyai pengalaman sebagai Guru Besar atau GPK juga boleh memohon untuk pengisian jawatan Guru Besar gred DGA34.
3.1.3 Pengisian Kuota Guru Besar Cemerlang Gred DGA38 (KUP)
(a) Pengisian kuota Guru Besar Cemerlang gred DGA38 (KUP) hanya dibuat dari kalangan Guru Besar gred DGA34 yang berkaliber dan telah menunjukkan prestasi yang cemerlang.
3.1.4 Carta yang menunjukkan laluan kerjaya Guru Besar secara lebih jelas adalah seperti di Lampiran A.
3.2 Prinsip-Prinsip Baru Pengisian Jawatan Naik Pangkat Guru Penolong Kanan Dan Pengetua Untuk Sekolah Menengah
3.2.1 Pengisian Jawatan Guru Penolong Kanan (GPK) / Ketua Bidang (KB) Gred DG44
(a) Pengisian jawatan GPK / KB gred DG44 akan dibuat secara pemangkuan oleh calon gred DG41 ataupun pengisian oleh calon DG44 Time Based .
(b) PPPS gred DG41 boleh memohon untuk urusan pemangkuan jawatan GPK / KB gred DG44. Walaubagaimanapun, keutamaaan diberikan kepada calon-calon yang mempunyai pengalaman dalam menjalankan tugas-tugas pentadbiran mengikut salah satu daripada bidang-bidang seperti berikut :
(i) Guru Penyelaras Bistari
(ii) Guru Perpustakaan/Media
(iii) Guru Data
(iv) Guru Disiplin / Kaunselor
(v) Setiausaha Peperiksaan
(vi) Guru Tingkatan
(vii) Guru Kaunselor
(viii) Setiausaha Latihan Dalam Perkhidmatan (LDP)
(c) Mana-mana pegawai gred DG44 di Pejabat Pelajaran Daerah (PPD), Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri (JPN) dan Bahagian di KPM yang mempunyai pengalaman sebagai GPK / KB juga boleh memohon untuk pengisian jawatan GPK / KB gred DG44 secara pertukaran setara.
3.2.2 Pengisian Jawatan Pengetua Gred DG48
(a) Pengisian jawatan Pengetua gred DG48 akan diberi keutamaan kepada GPK gred DG44 dalam urusan pemangkuan ke gred DG48.
(b) Ketua Bidang gred DG44 yang berkebolehan juga boleh memohon untuk memangku jawatan Pengetua gred DG48 dalam urusan pemangkuan ke gred DG48.
(c) GPK dan Ketua Bidang gred DG48 (KUP) juga boleh memohon untuk pengisian jawatan Pengetua gred DG48.
(d) Mana-mana pegawai di Pejabat Pelajaran Daerah (PPD), Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri (JPN) dan Bahagian di KPM yang mempunyai pengalaman sebagai GPK atau Ketua Bidang (KB) boleh memohon untuk pengisian jawatan Pengetua gred DG48 samada melalui urusan pemangkuan DG44 ke DG48 atau pertukaran setara gred DG48.
3.2.3 Pengisian Jawatan Pengetua Gred DG52
(a) Pengetua gred DG48 atau Penolong Kanan Tingkatan 6 gred DG48 atau GPK / KB gred DG48 (KUP) yang berkaliber dan telah menunjukkan prestasi yang cemerlang boleh memohon untuk pengisian jawatan Pengetua gred DG52 melalui urusan pemangkuan ke gred DG52.
3.2.4 Pengisian Kuota Pengetua Cemerlang Gred DG52 (KUP)
(a) Kuota Pengetua Cemerlang gred DG52 (KUP) hanya akan diperuntukkan kepada Pengetua yang telah dinaikkan pangkat ke gred DG48 dan telah berkhidmat sebagai Pengetua gred DG48 selama 3 tahun berturut-turut dan berpotensi untuk meningkat maju.
3.2.5 Pengisian Kuota Pengetua Cemerlang Gred DG54 (KUP)
(a) Kuota Pengetua Cemerlang gred DG54 (KUP) akan diisi oleh Pengetua yang telah dinaikkan pangkat secara hakiki ke gred DG52 ataupun oleh Pengetua Cemerlang gred DG52 yang telah dinaikkan pangkat dalam gred yang berkenaan.
3.2.6 Pengisian Kuota Pengetua Cemerlang JUSA C (KUP)
(a) Jawatan Pengetua Cemerlang JUSA C akan hanya diisi oleh Pengetua Cemerlang gred DG54 (KUP) yang telah dinaikkan pangkat dalam gred berkenaan.
3.2.7 Pengisian Jawatan Hakiki Gred DG54 oleh Pengetua Gred DG52 (Hakiki)
(a) Pengetua gred DG52 (Hakiki) boleh memohon untuk urusan pemangkuan ke gred DG54 bagi mengisi jawatan-jawatan pengurusan dan pentadbiran gred DG54. Sebagai contoh jawatan-jawatan hakiki gred DG54 adalah seperti berikut :
(i) Timbalan Pengarah Bahagian di KPM / IAB gred DG54;
(ii) Timbalan Pengarah Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri gred DG54;
(iii) Pegawai Pelajaran Daerah Wilayah Persekutuan gred DG54; dan
(iv) Pengarah IPGM / Kolej Matrikulasi.
3.2.8 Carta yang menunjukkan laluan kerjaya Pengetua secara lebih jelas adalah seperti di Lampiran B.
4. Tarikh berkuat kuasa prinsip-prinsip baru mengenai pengisian jawatan Guru Besar di sekolah rendah dan Pengetua di Sekolah Menengah ini adalah mulai 27 Ogos 2009.
5. Di atas segala kerjasama Y.Bhg. Datuk/Dato’/Datin/Tuan/Puan di dalam mematuhi dan melaksanakan prinsip-prinsip tersebut di atas adalah sangat-sangat dihargai dan didahului dengan ucapan ribuan terima kasih.
Sekian.
“BERKHIDMAT UNTUK NEGARA”
Yang Ikhlas,
( TAN SRI DATO’ HAJI ALIMUDDIN BIN HAJI MOHD. DOM)
Ketua Pengarah Pelajaran Malaysia
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia
Semua Pengarah Pelajaran Negeri
Semua Pegawai Pelajaran Daerah
Y.Bhg. Datuk/Dato’/Datin/Tuan/Puan,
PRINSIP-PRINSIP BARU PENGISIAN JAWATAN GURU BESAR DI SEKOLAH RENDAH DAN PENGETUA DI SEKOLAH MENENGAH KEMENTERIAN PELAJARAN MALAYSIA
Dengan segala hormatnya saya merujuk kepada perkara di atas.
2. Adalah dimaklumkan bahawa Mesyuarat Pengurusan Tertinggi Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia (KPM) Bil. 10 Tahun 2009 yang bersidang pada 15 Julai 2009 telah bersetuju untuk mewujudkan satu dasar yang lebih komprehensif, adil, saksama dan telus bagi laluan kerjaya Guru Besar di sekolah rendah dan Pengetua di sekolah menengah. Berikutan daripada keputusan tersebut, prinsip-prinsip baru pengisian jawatan Guru Besar di sekolah rendah dan jawatan Pengetua di sekolah menengah telahpun diluluskan melalui Mesyuarat Pengurusan Tertinggi KPM Bil. 13 Tahun 2009 yang bersidang pada 26 Ogos 2009. Sehubungan dengan itu, surat siaran ini bertujuan untuk memaklumkan prinsip-prinsip baru pengisian jawatan Guru Besar di sekolah rendah dan jawatan Pengetua di sekolah menengah.
3. Prinsip-prinsip baru pengisian jawatan naik pangkat Guru Besar di sekolah rendah dan Pengetua untuk sekolah menengah adalah seperti berikut:
3.1 Prinsip-Prinsip Baru Pengisian Jawatan Naik Pangkat Guru Penolong Kanan Dan Guru Besar Di Sekolah Rendah
3.1.1 Pengisian Jawatan Guru Penolong Kanan (GPK) dan Guru Besar (GB) Gred DGA32
(a) Pengisian jawatan GPK dan Guru Besar gred DGA32 akan dibuat secara pemangkuan oleh calon gred DGA29 ataupun pengisian oleh calon Gred DGA32 Time Based.
(b) Pegawai Perkhidmatan Pendidikan Lepasan Diploma (PPPLD) gred DGA29 boleh memohon untuk urusan pemangkuan jawatan GPK atau Guru Besar gred DGA32. Walaubagaimanapun, keutamaaan diberikan kepada calon-calon yang mempunyai pengalaman dalam menjalankan tugas-tugas pentadbiran mengikut salah satu daripada bidang-bidang seperti berikut :
(i) Guru Penyelaras Bistari
(ii) Guru Perpustakaan/Media
(iii) Guru Data
(iv) Guru Disiplin
(v) Setiausaha Peperiksaan
(vi) Guru Darjah
(vii) Guru Kanan Mata Pelajaran
(viii) Guru Bimbingan
(c) Mana-mana pegawai gred DGA32 di Pejabat Pelajaran Daerah (PPD), Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri (JPN) dan Bahagian di KPM yang mempunyai pengalaman sebagai Guru Besar atau GPK juga boleh memohon untuk pengisian jawatan GPK atau GB gred DGA32.
3.1.2 Pengisian Jawatan Guru Besar Gred DGA34
(a) Keutamaan diberikan kepada Guru Besar gred DGA32 dan GPK gred DGA32 dalam urusan pemangkuan / kenaikan pangkat ke gred DGA34.
(b) Mana-mana pegawai gred DGA32 di Pejabat Pelajaran Daerah (PPD), Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri (JPN) dan Bahagian di KPM yang mempunyai pengalaman sebagai Guru Besar atau GPK juga boleh memohon untuk urusan pemangkuan bagi mengisi jawatan Guru Besar gred DGA34.
(c) Mana-mana pegawai gred DGA34 di Pejabat Pelajaran Daerah (PPD), Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri (JPN) dan Bahagian di KPM yang mempunyai pengalaman sebagai Guru Besar atau GPK juga boleh memohon untuk pengisian jawatan Guru Besar gred DGA34.
3.1.3 Pengisian Kuota Guru Besar Cemerlang Gred DGA38 (KUP)
(a) Pengisian kuota Guru Besar Cemerlang gred DGA38 (KUP) hanya dibuat dari kalangan Guru Besar gred DGA34 yang berkaliber dan telah menunjukkan prestasi yang cemerlang.
3.1.4 Carta yang menunjukkan laluan kerjaya Guru Besar secara lebih jelas adalah seperti di Lampiran A.
3.2 Prinsip-Prinsip Baru Pengisian Jawatan Naik Pangkat Guru Penolong Kanan Dan Pengetua Untuk Sekolah Menengah
3.2.1 Pengisian Jawatan Guru Penolong Kanan (GPK) / Ketua Bidang (KB) Gred DG44
(a) Pengisian jawatan GPK / KB gred DG44 akan dibuat secara pemangkuan oleh calon gred DG41 ataupun pengisian oleh calon DG44 Time Based .
(b) PPPS gred DG41 boleh memohon untuk urusan pemangkuan jawatan GPK / KB gred DG44. Walaubagaimanapun, keutamaaan diberikan kepada calon-calon yang mempunyai pengalaman dalam menjalankan tugas-tugas pentadbiran mengikut salah satu daripada bidang-bidang seperti berikut :
(i) Guru Penyelaras Bistari
(ii) Guru Perpustakaan/Media
(iii) Guru Data
(iv) Guru Disiplin / Kaunselor
(v) Setiausaha Peperiksaan
(vi) Guru Tingkatan
(vii) Guru Kaunselor
(viii) Setiausaha Latihan Dalam Perkhidmatan (LDP)
(c) Mana-mana pegawai gred DG44 di Pejabat Pelajaran Daerah (PPD), Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri (JPN) dan Bahagian di KPM yang mempunyai pengalaman sebagai GPK / KB juga boleh memohon untuk pengisian jawatan GPK / KB gred DG44 secara pertukaran setara.
3.2.2 Pengisian Jawatan Pengetua Gred DG48
(a) Pengisian jawatan Pengetua gred DG48 akan diberi keutamaan kepada GPK gred DG44 dalam urusan pemangkuan ke gred DG48.
(b) Ketua Bidang gred DG44 yang berkebolehan juga boleh memohon untuk memangku jawatan Pengetua gred DG48 dalam urusan pemangkuan ke gred DG48.
(c) GPK dan Ketua Bidang gred DG48 (KUP) juga boleh memohon untuk pengisian jawatan Pengetua gred DG48.
(d) Mana-mana pegawai di Pejabat Pelajaran Daerah (PPD), Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri (JPN) dan Bahagian di KPM yang mempunyai pengalaman sebagai GPK atau Ketua Bidang (KB) boleh memohon untuk pengisian jawatan Pengetua gred DG48 samada melalui urusan pemangkuan DG44 ke DG48 atau pertukaran setara gred DG48.
3.2.3 Pengisian Jawatan Pengetua Gred DG52
(a) Pengetua gred DG48 atau Penolong Kanan Tingkatan 6 gred DG48 atau GPK / KB gred DG48 (KUP) yang berkaliber dan telah menunjukkan prestasi yang cemerlang boleh memohon untuk pengisian jawatan Pengetua gred DG52 melalui urusan pemangkuan ke gred DG52.
3.2.4 Pengisian Kuota Pengetua Cemerlang Gred DG52 (KUP)
(a) Kuota Pengetua Cemerlang gred DG52 (KUP) hanya akan diperuntukkan kepada Pengetua yang telah dinaikkan pangkat ke gred DG48 dan telah berkhidmat sebagai Pengetua gred DG48 selama 3 tahun berturut-turut dan berpotensi untuk meningkat maju.
3.2.5 Pengisian Kuota Pengetua Cemerlang Gred DG54 (KUP)
(a) Kuota Pengetua Cemerlang gred DG54 (KUP) akan diisi oleh Pengetua yang telah dinaikkan pangkat secara hakiki ke gred DG52 ataupun oleh Pengetua Cemerlang gred DG52 yang telah dinaikkan pangkat dalam gred yang berkenaan.
3.2.6 Pengisian Kuota Pengetua Cemerlang JUSA C (KUP)
(a) Jawatan Pengetua Cemerlang JUSA C akan hanya diisi oleh Pengetua Cemerlang gred DG54 (KUP) yang telah dinaikkan pangkat dalam gred berkenaan.
3.2.7 Pengisian Jawatan Hakiki Gred DG54 oleh Pengetua Gred DG52 (Hakiki)
(a) Pengetua gred DG52 (Hakiki) boleh memohon untuk urusan pemangkuan ke gred DG54 bagi mengisi jawatan-jawatan pengurusan dan pentadbiran gred DG54. Sebagai contoh jawatan-jawatan hakiki gred DG54 adalah seperti berikut :
(i) Timbalan Pengarah Bahagian di KPM / IAB gred DG54;
(ii) Timbalan Pengarah Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri gred DG54;
(iii) Pegawai Pelajaran Daerah Wilayah Persekutuan gred DG54; dan
(iv) Pengarah IPGM / Kolej Matrikulasi.
3.2.8 Carta yang menunjukkan laluan kerjaya Pengetua secara lebih jelas adalah seperti di Lampiran B.
4. Tarikh berkuat kuasa prinsip-prinsip baru mengenai pengisian jawatan Guru Besar di sekolah rendah dan Pengetua di Sekolah Menengah ini adalah mulai 27 Ogos 2009.
5. Di atas segala kerjasama Y.Bhg. Datuk/Dato’/Datin/Tuan/Puan di dalam mematuhi dan melaksanakan prinsip-prinsip tersebut di atas adalah sangat-sangat dihargai dan didahului dengan ucapan ribuan terima kasih.
Sekian.
“BERKHIDMAT UNTUK NEGARA”
Yang Ikhlas,
( TAN SRI DATO’ HAJI ALIMUDDIN BIN HAJI MOHD. DOM)
Ketua Pengarah Pelajaran Malaysia
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia
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